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  • Garrity Decision Research Guide

Introduction

Boston’s busing crisis was sparked in 1974 with the ruling of Judge Arthur Garrity in the case of Tallulah Morgan et al. v. James Hennigan et al, known as the Garrity Decision. Judge Garrity ruled that the Boston School Committee had “intentionally brought about and maintained racial segregation” in the Boston Public Schools; his plan to create racial balance involved busing students to various schools throughout the city. At the time of the ruling, Congressman John Joseph Moakley represented South Boston, one of the neighborhoods most directly affected by the busing plan. This guide provides context about the busing crisis and outlines the resources available at the Moakley Archive and Institute at Suffolk University for researchers.

.PDF version of the Garrity Decision Research Guide

Background Information- The Garrity Decision and Forced Busing in Boston

School desegregation became a significant issue in Boston following the United States Supreme Court’s decision in the 1954 case of Oliver Brown et al. v. Board of Education of Topeka et al. (347 U.S. 483), which asserted that separate educational facilities for black and white students were inherently unequal, school districts were faced with the task of integrating their public schools.  Despite the Brown decision and the enactment of the Racial Balance Act of 1965 in the state of Massachusetts, the Boston Public Schools largely remained segregated.

In response to the inaction, a group of black parents filed suit against the Boston School Committee, then led by James W. Hennigan, in the case of Tallulah Morgan et al. v. James Hennigan et al. (379 F. Supp. 410) on March 15, 1972. The suit claimed that the Boston Public Schools were deliberately segregated. The filing of Morgan v. Hennigan, some say, is linked to a Boston School Committee meeting on September 21, 1971 where the committee voted 3 to 2 against using busing to racially balance the new Lee School; 1 a vote in violation of the Racial Imbalance Act of 1965.

The “Garrity Decision” refers to the opinion on Morgan v. Hennigan filed by Judge Arthur W. Garrity on June 21, 1974. When the school committee failed to submit a plan, the court established a plan that called for Boston Public School students to be bused to schools outside their neighborhoods. The plan determined that “the racial balance in all citywide schools shall be reflective of the total student population in the Boston public school system, with a 5 percent leeway in white or minority enrollments. For example, white students represent 51 percent of the city’s student, so white enrollment could number from 56 to 46 percent at any citywide school.  Black and other minority students, who are 49 percent of the city’s total school enrollment, may range from 54 to 44 percent of enrollment at individual citywide schools.”  2

Judge Garrity’s desegregation plan was to be implemented in three phases. Phase I, which began on the first day of school September 12, 1974, involved redistricting, student transportation and the formation of parent-teacher-community involvement committees. This phase only applied to neighborhoods where whites and blacks lived near each other; the Charlestown, East Boston and North End neighborhoods were excluded.

Phase II, also known as “The Masters’ Plan”, was ordered to begin in September 1975, and included all areas of the city except East Boston. This phase involved a “a revision of attendance zones and grade structures, construction of new schools and the closing of old schools and a controlled transfer policy” with limited exceptions in order to minimize mandatory transportation. 3 Essentially students had two options: 1. to attend a school in their community district schools where the enrollment was determined by the school committee or 2. to attend a citywide school where they could list a preferred school in addition to other options if their desired school was unavailable. Opting to enroll in a community district school meant that the school committee determined where students went based on geocode and racial balance. 4  Phase II also linked universities, colleges and community groups to schools.

Phase III began in September 1977 and established the Department of Implementation which oversaw desegregation and the compiling of racial statistics of the Boston public schools.

Footnotes

1. Boston School Committee hearing transcript, 2.
2. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights report, 87.
3. Ibid., 77.
4. Ibid., 91.

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Background Information- Congressional Elections

Prior to the implementation of Judge Garrity’s school desegregation plan, the controversy surrounding the issue of school desegregation found its way into the political arena. Many Boston residents were outraged that their children would no longer be able to attend local “neighborhood” schools and instead would be bused to unfamiliar areas of Boston.  The issue was of great importance in South Boston, a largely white neighborhood of Boston, where voters would be taking part in the 1970 congressional elections to fill the seat vacated by John McCormack.  Joe Moakley, a Democrat, ran for the open seat in 1970 but lost to another South Boston resident, Democrat Louise Day Hicks, in part because Hicks was a more outspoken critic of busing than Moakley. While Moakley expressed his dissatisfaction with the idea of forced busing, his stance was not as firm as South Boston residents would have liked. Moakley was able to win the 1972 congressional election by running as an Independent and therefore bypassing the need to beat Hicks in a Democratic primary.  Once elected, Moakley switched back to the Democratic Party and went on to hold the sear for nearly thirty years. Many residents of South Boston never forgave him for his perceived failure to stop school desegregation in their community.

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Background Information- The Impact of the Garrity Decision

Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, racial tension and violence escalated in Boston. In anticipation of a ruling on school desegregation, anti-busing rallies and protests were held at city hall and elsewhere around the city.

Elementary and high school students, already subject to long bus rides across the city, experienced rocks thrown at their buses, verbal harassment by people as they entered school buildings, and in some cases harassment by their peers and school administrators once inside the building. The stabbing of Michael Faith, a white South Boston High School student, by a black student inside the walls of the school is just one example of the violence that broke out between students.

Busing proponents and opponents were subject to harassment on a daily basis. Pro-busing activists experienced death threats and harassment by motorcades that hurled insults and rocks at their homes. An iconic image taken by Stanley Forman depicts violence at a rally in April 1976. In the photograph it appears that Ted Landsmark is being attacked with an American flag by anti-busing activist Joseph Rakes. The accounts of what actually happened between Landsmark and Rakes vary widely; ultimately Landsmark sustained injuries at the hands of other protestors that day. This image won Foreman a Pulitzer Prize and catapulted Boston’s race problems into the national spotlight.

South Boston was a hot bed of protest and violence. Boston policemen were initially assigned to protect South Boston High School but as the crowds and tension escalated, the National Guard and State Police were called in to maintain order. In his oral history interview Congressman Moakley, a resident of South Boston, recalls his treatment: “I was against busing too, but I just couldn’t march in the streets and scream and holler like some of the people were doing it, and that cost me… On a Monday, I was picketed by six hundred whites.  On a Tuesday, I was picketed by six hundred blacks. ”5  Many Boston families chose to move out of the city to the suburbs; this mass migration, commonly known as “White Flight,” began between 1950 and 1960. 6  Options for families who did not want their children to be bused and could not afford to move out of the city were slim. Families that could afford it sent their children to parochial school.

As the plan unfolded throughout the 1970s, students and parents gradually accepted forced busing and racial tensions eventually lessened. Judge Garrity continued to oversee most administrative functions of the Boston School Committee and to make decisions regarding schooling and desegregation. Although Garrity’s involvement ended in September 1985, the battle over schools and race continued in the federal courts into the 1990s.

 

Footnotes

5. Moakley, John Joseph, OH-001, 19-20.
6. “Between 1950 and 1960, a net of 124,668 whites moved out of the city, and a net of 187,521 whites moved into the suburbs of Boston. Between 1960 and 1970, a net of 97,668 whites moved out of the city, and a net of 206,663 whites moved into the suburbs. Hence, ‘white flight’ to the suburbs was considerably less during the decade when school desegregation efforts intensified than during the previous decade.” U.S. Commission on Civil Rights report, 36.

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Footnotes and Works Cited

1. Boston School Committee hearing transcript, 2.
2. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights report, 87.
3. Ibid., 77.
4. Ibid., 91.
5. Moakley, John Joseph, OH-001, 19-20.
6. “Between 1950 and 1960, a net of 124,668 whites moved out of the city, and a net of 187,521 whites moved into the suburbs of Boston. Between 1960 and 1970, a net of 97,668 whites moved out of the city, and a net of 206,663 whites moved into the suburbs. Hence, ‘white flight’ to the suburbs was considerably less during the decade when school desegregation efforts intensified than during the previous decade.” U.S. Commission on Civil Rights report, 36.

• Boston School Committee hearing transcript, 9/21/1971, 0405.002 Row 16 Bay 5 Box 61, School Committee Records, Boston City Archives, West Roxbury, MA.
• Moakley, John Joseph. Interviewed by Robert Allison and Joseph McEttrick. John Joseph Moakley Oral History Project, OH-001. 2 April 2001. Transcript and video recording available. John Joseph Moakley Archive and Institute, Suffolk University, Boston, MA.
• U.S. Commission on Civil Rights. School Desegregation in Boston. Washington, DC. June, 1975. CR1.2:Sch6/18. http://www.law.umaryland.edu/marshall/usccr/documents/cr12sch618.pdf

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Materials from the Moakley Papers (MS100)

MS 100 contains over fifty folders of printed materials that directly relate to the Garrity Decision, including news clippings, constituent and professional correspondence, legislative files, and reports on the issue that were written by various organizations. What follows is a list of the series to consult for further research:

General Legislative Assistants Files (MS100/03.09):
• Folders 1, 2 and 8 contain legislation files background materials and a memo.
District Issues (MS100/04):
• Folders 40-87 contain legislative files, constituent correspondence, and news clippings
Campaign Files (MS100/05):
• Folders 23-37, relate to the 1972 campaign
Constituent Service Information Requests (MS100/06.06):
• Folders 136 and 345, correspondence files from constituents requesting help from Congressman Moakley
News clippings (MS100/07.01): stored off-site; advanced notice required
• Folders 3-6, 49, 54-56
Press Releases (MS100/07.03):
• Folder 44, Press release about South Boston High receivership and letter from Louise Day Hicks, 1975
Congressional Speeches (MS100/08.01):
• Folders 14 and 20, speeches made by Congressman Moakley on the House floor
Non- Congressional Speeches (MS100/08.02):
• Folder 9, busing testimony, 1973
Audio Files (MS100/09.01):
• Items 19 and 54
Memorabilia (MS100/09.03):
• Item 378 
Congressional Photographs (MS100/10.02):
• Folder 19
Pre-Congressional Political Files (MS100/11.01):
• Folder 49, relate to the 1970 campaign

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Digitized Correspondence from the Moakley Papers

Correspondence regarding busing or South Boston High receivership

  • From South Boston residents, 9/31/1974, DI-1008 (.PDF)
  • Reaction letter from Paul [sic] regarding his attendance at a Neponset River clean-up meeting that evolved in to a busing meeting, 10/1974, DI-0498 (.PDF)
  • 10/13/1975, 10/21/1975, DI-1009 (.PDF)
  • 10/30/1975, DI-0976 (.PDF)
  • 11/1/1975, DI-1010 (.PDF)
  • 12/1/1975, DI-0491 (.PDF)
  • 12/1/1975, DI-0492 (.PDF)
  • 12/1/1975, DI-0493 (.PDF) and bumper sticker DI-0287 (.jpg)
  • 12/15/1975, DI-1011 (.PDF)
  • 12/24/1975, DI-0975 (.PDF)
  • Between Moakley and Louise Day Hicks
     12/1975, DI-0499 (.PDF)
     12/19/1975 includes news clipping from the Quincy Patriot Ledger "Southie Order Called Illegal", DI-1013 (.PDF)
  • From Louise Day Hicks,
     8/4/1975, DI-0977 (.PDF)
     12/1/12/1975, DI-0502 (.PDF)
  • Between Moakley and ROAR
     From Rita Graul, 1975, DI-0986 (.PDF)
     From Moakley to ROAR and Senator John Tower, 10/14/1975, DI-0987 (.PDF)
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Digitized Memos from the Moakley Papers

  • Moakley’s busing voting record in the 93rd Congress, 11/1/1974, DI-0497 (.PDF)
  • From Jimmy O’Leary “Possible statement on South Boston High School, n.d., DI-0500 (.PDF)
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Digitized News Clippings from the Moakley Papers

Note: due to copyright restrictions, digitized files are only available in the Archives.

  • Moakley a leader of the anti-busing movement, 1970s, Unknown Newspaper, DI-0490 (.PDF)
  • "Fr. Drinan in Upset Win Over Philbin in Third District", 1970, Unknown Newspaper, DI-1002 (.PDF)
  • "Mrs. Hicks in Landslide; Rep. Keith Rolls Past Weeks", 1970, Unknown Newspaper, DI-1002 (.PDF)
  • "Mayor White Claims Victory: Spaulding Tops McCarthy-Dukakis in Easy Victory", 1970, Unknown Newspaper, DI-1002 (.PDF)
  • "Mayor weighs alternate site: Mothers win L-St. Reversal", 7/7/1970, Boston Herald Travler, DI-1004 (.PDF)
  • "Mrs. Hicks best known in the 9th: John Saltonstall is best liked", 7/24/1970, Boston Globe, DI-1005 (.PDF)
  • "Hicks Pamphlet Blasted", 8/13/1970, Boston Herald Travler, DI-1006 (.PDF)
  • "The coy Mrs. Hicks", 8/31/1970, Boston Globe, DI-0999 (.PDF)
  • "Unspoken Issue Helps Mrs. Hicks Campaign for Seat in Congress", 8/31/1970, Wall Street Journal, DI-1000 (.PDF)
  • "Councilwoman Leads Scramble for Congress", 9/2/1970, New Bedford Standard-Times, DI-0998 (.PDF)
  • "Hicks the issue, no matter what", 9/4/1970, Boston Globe, DI-0997 (.PDF)
  • "Moakley Charges Hicks Against Rent Payers", 9/11/1970, Boston Post Gazette, DI-0995 (.PDF)
  • "2 Foes Blast Hicks", 9/11/1970, Boston Herald Traveler, DI-0996 (.PDF)
  • "Teamsters Endorse John Moakley", 9/11/1970, Boston Post Gazette, DI-0996 (.PDF)
  • "Nation Eyes Congressional Primary", 9/13/1970, Boston Advertiser, DI-0994 (.PDF)
  • "Nation Watches Battle to Replace McCormack", 9/13/1970, Boston Advertiser, DI-0994 (.PDF)
  • "Spaulding Supporting a Democrat", 9/15/1970, Haverhill Gazette, DI-0992 (.PDF)
  • "Mrs. Hicks beats 2", 9/16/1970, Lawrence Eagle Tribune, DI-0992 (.PDF)
  • "Does Hub Vote Bear Ill Tidings for Kevin?", 9/20/1970, Boston Herald Traveler, DI-0993 (.PDF)
  • "What's the Story in the Ninth District?" includes district demographics, 9/6/1971, Boston Globe, DI-1001 (.PDF)
  • "Busing views to be aired tonight", 1974, Unknown Newspaper, DI-1021 (.PDF)
  • "Massive School Boycott Scheduled Friday", 1974, Boston Herald American, DI-0980 (.PDF)
  • "Mass. Delegation mixed on busing controversy", 1974, Boston Globe, DI-1019 (.PDF)
  • "Has signatures, awaits bus ruling Mrs. Hicks waivers on congress", 6/19/1974, Boston Globe, DI-1020 (.PDF)
  • "'Why are you all here?' Studds asked", 7/22/1974, Boston Globe, DI-1018 (.PDF)
  • "Mass. Delegation -minus 4- urges busing compliance", 9/6/1974, Boston Globe, DI-1021 (.PDF)
  • "Dedham Busing Protest Peaceful", 11/1974, Quincy Patriot Ledger, DI-1017 (.PDF)
  • "Busing foes gird for '75", 11/31/1974, Christian Science Monitor, DI-1016 (.PDF)
  • "2-1 caucus vote against House action Democrats sidestep busing ban", 1975, Boston Globe, DI-1024 (.PDF)
  • "Moakley and the PR busing game", 1975, Boston Globe, DI-1027 (.PDF)
  • "The ROAR of the Crowd: Their Cause is Still Not Seen as a Nation[sic]", 1975, Unknown Newspaper, DI-0982 (.PDF)
  • "O'Neill's stand on busing issue a question mark", 3/1975, Boston Globe, DI-1022 (.PDF)
  • "Atkins amendment wouldn't halt Hub busing", 3/5/1975, Boston Globe, DI-1023 (.PDF)
  • "Looking Back on Busing Coverage", 3/11/1975, Boston Phoenix, DI-0981 (.PDF)
  • "South Boston Information Center News" regarding busing, 8/21/1975, South Boston Tribune, DI-1025 (.PDF)
  • "School integration must be achieved, but problem is to find best way to do it" by Lorraine Faith, 10/6/1975, Boston Globe, DI-0984 (.PDF)
  • "South Boston Information Center News" regarding busing, 10/9/1975, South Boston Tribune, DI-0983 (.PDF)
  • "Hearing on busing costs scheduled", 10/9/1975, Mattapan tribune, DI-1017 (.PDF)
  • "Demos Plan Busing Caucus", 10/17/1975, Daily Sentinel/Leominster Enterprise, DI-0981 (.PDF)
  • "Democrats to vote on busing ban", 10/18/1975, Boston Globe, DI-1017 (.PDF)
  • "Hub Hubbub Boston's School Busing Proves Mostly a Model of How Not to Do It: In Third Year of Program City Remains Explosive; The Mood of 'Southie': What about 'Rizzo Country'?", 10/13/1976, Wall Street Journal, DI-0985 (.PDF) 
     
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Digitized Notes from the Moakley Papers

  • “For Jimmy-busing” describes Moakley’s stance on busing and what he has done on the issue, 1970s, DI-0496 (.PDF)
  • From John Williams to Moakley; attached to note is political cartoon from the Boston Herald Traveler featuring Louise Day Hicks as "Apple Annie", 8/3/1970, DI-1007 (.PDF)
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Digitized Press Releases from the Moakley Papers

  • “Congress votes down busing”, 1970s, DI-0494 (.PDF)
  • “Busing Clash Looms in Washington”, 1970s, DI-0495 (.PDF)
  • Regarding Moakley's "reaction to vote today before the House Democrats Caucus on a Constitutional Amendment to prohibit the forced busing of school children" and his testimony., 11/1975, DI-0990 (.PDF)
  • "Democrats slate first constitutional amendment vote", 11/1975, DI-0989 (.PDF)
  • “Moakley Questions Garrity’s Decision”, 12/1975, DI-0501 (.PDF)
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Various Materials Digitized from the Moakley Papers

  • Map of Boston wards, c. 1970, DI-1015 (.PDF)
  • Political cartoon from the South Boston Gazette "The Congressional Race is On…", 6/4/1970, DI-1003 (.PDF)
  • Moakley Busing Testimony, 3/23/1973, DI-0991 (.PDF)
  • Freedom House Institute on Schools and Education, booklet on Boston Desegregation: Questions and Answers, c. 1974, DI-0972 (.PDF)
  • "Statement of Mayor Kevin H. White" regarding busing, 10/10/1974, DI-1014 (.PDF)
  • Article from U.S. News and World Report "Should School Busing be Stopped?" features interviews from Senator Joseph Biden Jr. and Senator Edward Brooke, 1975, DI-1026 (.PDF)
  • Poem- “Mourn Massachusetts”, 1975, DI-0503 (.PDF)
  • ROAR statement of demands, 1975, DI-0988 (.PDF)
  • The True Paper; A newsletter printed by the West Roxbury Information Center, 1975, DI-0979 (.PDF)
  • Freedom House Institute on Schools and Education, booklet Boston School Committee "Student Desegregation Plan": A Response, 2/3/1975, DI-0974 (.PDF)
  • Freedom House Institute on Schools and Education, booklet on Boston Desegregation: The First Term 1974-75 School Year, 2/22/1975, DI-0973 (.PDF)
  • Testimony of Congressman John Joseph Moakley (D-Boston) before Committee on Judiciary United States Senate, 10/29/1975, DI-0978 (.PDF)
  • "Make Congress Stop Bussing" booklet by Congressman Lawrence P. MacDonald, 4/1976, DI-1012 (.PDF)
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Materials in the Suffolk University Archives Reference Files (SUA-004.03)

• Boston Election Information, c. 1970s
• Busing
• Busing, 2004
• Busing- Boston School Committee hearing transcript on Racial Balance Law, 9/21/1971
• Busing- Garrity decision: Morgan v. Hennigan court ruling, 6/21/1974
• Busing- Garrity decision: reference articles
• Busing- Garrity decision: timeline (Boston Public School Events)
• Busing- School Desegregation in Boston, A Staff report prepared for the hearing of the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights in Boston, Massachusetts, 6/1975
• Garrity, Judge Arthur W. (busing)
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Oral History Interviews

The Moakley Oral History Project and the Boston Voices project (this project was created following the thirtieth anniversary of the Garrity Decision in 2004) collected interviews regarding key events and issues in Congressman Moakley’s life and career that document valuable information and observations that may not be part of the paper, photographic and audiovisual portions of the Moakley Papers.  Interviews with the following narrators, including family, friends, and staff of Moakley’s, include observations about the 1974 Garrity decision. Interviews from the Boston Voices project focus entirely on the Garrity decision. 

Link to Garrity Decision Interviews

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Other Archival Collections (Boston Area)

Boston College
• Citywide Coordinating Council Records, 1975-1978; for more information visit: http://www.bc.edu/libraries/collections/collinfo/a-zlist/manuscripts.html#bostarea

City of Boston Archives
• Numerous collections related to the Garrity decision and that time period in Boston; for more information visit: http://www.cityofboston.gov/archivesandrecords/default.asp

Massachusetts Archives
• Massachusetts Executive Office of Educational Affairs Administrative Files, 1972-1980; for more information visit: http://www.sec.state.ma.us/arc/arccol/colidx.htm

Northeastern University
• James W. Fraser (collector) photograph collection; finding aid available online at http://www.library.neu.edu/archives/collect/findaids/m66find.htm
• Roxbury Multi-Service Center records; finding aid available online at http://www.lib.neu.edu/archives/collect/findaids/m109find.htm
• Citywide Educational Coalition records; finding aid available online at http://www.lib.neu.edu/archives/collect/findaids/m130find.htm

University of Massachusetts Boston
• Center for Law and Education: Morgan v. Hennigan Case Records, 1964-1994; finding aid available online at http://www.lib.umb.edu/node/1557
• Judge W. Arthur Garrity, Jr.; Papers on the Boston Schools Desegregation Case, 1972-1997; finding aid available online at http://www.lib.umb.edu/node/1596 
• Mosaic (a writing and photography project at South Boston High School): Records, 1980-1990; finding aid available online at http://www.lib.umb.edu/node/1626 

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Secondary Sources- Books

  • Begley, Thomas M., The Organization of Anti-busing Protest in Boston, 1973-1976,
    Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, 1981.
  • *Buell, Emmett H., School Desegregation and Defended Neighborhoods: The Boston
     Controvery. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1982.
  • *Bullard, Pamela, and Judith Stoia, The Hardest Lesson: Personal Accounts of a School
    Desegregation Crisis. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1980.
  • *Dentler, Robert A., Schools on Trial: An Inside Account of the Boston Desegregation
     Case. Cambridge, Mass.: Abt Books, 1981.
  • *Eaton, Susan E., The Other Boston Busing Story: What’s Won and Lost Across the
     Boundary Line. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001.
  • *Formisano, Ronald P., Boston Against Busing: Race, Class, and Ethnicity in the 1960s
    and 1970s. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.
  • *Jones, Leon, From Brown to Boston: Desegregation in Education, 1954-1974.
    Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1979.
  • *Kozol, Jonathan, Death at an Early Age: The Destruction of the Hearts and Minds of
    Negro children in the Boston Public Schools. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1967.
  • *Lukas, J. Anthony, Common Ground: A Turbulent Decade in the Lives of Three
    American Families. New York: Knopf, 1985.
  • *Lupo, Alan. Liberty’s Chosen Home: The Politics of Violence in Boston. Boston: Little,
    Brown and Company, 1977.
  • *Metcalf, George R., From Little Rock to Boston: The History of School Desegregation.
     Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1983.
  • *Malloy, Ione, Southie Won’t Go: A Teacher’s Diary of the Desegregation of South
    Boston High School. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986.
  • Reid, Willie Mae, The Racist Offensive Against Busing: The Lessons Against Busing:
    How to Fight Back, New York: Pathfinder Press, 1974.
  • *Ross, J. Michael, “I Respectfully Disagree with the Judge’s Order:” The Boston
     School Desegregation Order. Washington, D.C.: University Press of America,
     1981.
  • Sheehan, J. Brian, The Boston School Integration Dispute: Social Change and Legal
     Maneuvers. New York: Columbia University Press, 1984.
  • *Taylor, D. Garth, Public Opinion and Collective Action: The Boston School
    Desegregation Conflict. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986.
  • Teele, James E., Evaluating School Busing: Case Study of Boston’s Operation Exodus.
     New York: Praeger, 1973.
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Secondary Sources- Journal Articles

  • Anrig, Gregory R., “Boston and the South: Differences and Similarities in School
           Desegregation,” Consortium Currents 2, no. 1 (Fall 1975): 11-13.
  • Casey, George W., “Busing in Boston: Weighing the Values,” America 133, no. 6 (Sept.
           13, 1975): 111-112.
  • Chancy, Joette and Brenda Franklin, “Report from Boston: The Struggle for
           Desegregation,” Black School 7, no. 4 (Dec. 1975): 19-27.
  • Kozol, Jonathan, “The Rebirth of Education in Boston,” American Education 16, no. 5
           (June 1980): 6-14.
  • Marshall, Kim, “The Rebirth of Education in Boston,” Learning 4, no. 1
           (Aug./Sept. 1975): 32-40.
  • Richer, M., “Busing’s Boston Massacre: A federal judge’s experiment in social
           engineering has unraveled neighborhoods and frustrated black achievement,”
           Policy Review, no. 92 (1998): 42-47.
  • Stack, John F., Jr., “Ethnicity, Racism, and Busing in Boston: The Boston Irish and
           School Desegregation,” Ethnicity 6, no. 1 (March 1979): 21-28.
  • Worsham, James, “Busing in Boston: Desegregating the Nation’s Oldest Public School
           System,” Civil Rights Digest 7, no. 2 (Winter 1975): 2-5.
  • Wren, C., “Indelible Images: Stanley Forman’s photograph of a brutal skirmish in
           downtown Boston 30 years ago encapsulated the city’s tensions over court-
           ordered busing,” Smithsonian 37, no. 1 (2006): 21-25.
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Secondary Sources- Online Resources

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